12,16,17,20 In this experiment, bacterial susceptibility to honey extracts varied, which indicated a strain-dependent effect. Al-Waili used a wide range of concentrations (10–100% (w/v)) of new honey (origin and type unspecified in the paper), stored honey, heated honey, ultraviolet-exposed honey, and heated-stored honey in acidic, neutral, and alkaline media to determinate their activities against common human pathogens in comparison with a glucose solution. Basson and Grobler tested the antibacterial potency of different honey varieties produced from indigenous wild flowers grown in South Africa against S. aureus. The inhibine was identified as hydrogen peroxide, a main antibacterial compound in honeys [30]. The aim of this experiment was to find a solution that may help control the resistance of bacteria to conventional antibiotics. Many factors have been shown to contribute to the antibacterial activity of honey, such as its high viscosity, mostly due to a high sugar concentration and low water content, which helps to provide a protective barrier to prevent infection. They examined the pattern of use of 43 ingredients and tested their antibacterial properties. Honey type also has an effect on its phenolic content. Thirty-eight percent of S. aureus strains were killed by 50% honey in 30 minutes and 45% after one hour. This study aims to investigate antibacterial activity of five varieties of Malaysian honey (three monofloral; acacia, gelam and pineapple, and two polyfloral; kelulut and tualang) against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas … They tested the growth of bacteria in media which contained different concentrations of honey, namely, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% (w/v). In another in vivo experiment, a significant decrease in the count of E. coli cells in faecal samples was observed in rats that had previously been inoculated orally with E. coli and fed 2 g honey daily for three days in comparison with glucose-, fructose-, and sucrose-fed controls [75]. One study compared the activity against P. aeruginosa and E. coli. Although the enzyme, glucose oxidase, is naturally present in honey, it is inactive in undiluted honey because of the low pH conditions [30]. Furthermore, the concentration of MGO increases as Manuka honey matures and after storage (up to 120 days) at 37°C, which has been attributed to the nonenzymatic conversion of dihydroxyacetone to MGO during long-term storage [62]. Sign up here as a reviewer to help fast-track new submissions. The increase in the resistance of pathogenic bacteria to antibiotics is also an increasingly important factor behind the growing interest in the use of these natural compounds. These include glucose oxidase, invertase (α-glucosidase), catalase, diastase (α-and β-amylase), and peroxidase. Many aspects of the antibacterial properties of honey have been reviewed and the growth of different bacteria has been tested in the presence of different concentrations of honey [4, 66, 70].Honey of different botanical origin and geographical area showed wide range of variation in their antibacterial … In general, it is important to appreciate that the results will depend largely on the technique and scientific judgment, and this needs to be considered when comparing results using different methods [32]. S. aureus needs an aw of lower than 0.86 for complete inhibition which is equivalent to a concentration of honey of 29% (v/v) [10]. Moreover, it is evident that the season also has a noticeable effect on the total phenolic (TP) acid content of honey. Its composition is complex and variable, and it contains at least 181 different substances [7]. All samples were tested at different concentrations (0.1%, 1%, 5%, 10%, and 20% (w/v)). In one early study, Jeddar et al. In an earlier report I have demonstrated the effect of direct sunlight and of the fluorescent light on the glucose oxidase activity, hence on the natural properties of honey. et al.rted the antibacterial properties of honey against two laboratory isolates e.g. In a comparative study of the activities of Manuka honey and Malaysian Tualang honey (Koompassia excelsa) against an extensive spectrum of microorganisms, Tan et al., found that MICs of Tualang honey ranged between 8.75% and 25% which means that Tualang honey has a similar antibacterial activity to Manuka honey with therefore potential for use used for the same medical purposes [68]. This review will focus on floral honey. Viper’s bugloss and Heather honey have also been studied and shown to have a much lower phenolic acid content, ranging between 132.17 ± 0.05 and 727.77 ± 0.23 mg/Kg [55]. These substances can mainly be divided into two groups: the major compounds such as the monosaccharaides (glucose and fructose) and the minor compounds including amino acids, enzymes, vitamins and minerals, and polyphenols [9]. The main enzymes in honey are invertase (saccharase) and diastase (amylase) which are introduced to honey by bees. In general, honeys might be classified to two groups: honeys whose activity is hydrogen-peroxide dependent (honeys of American, European, and some Asian origin) and honeys whose activity depends on the presence of methylglyoxal, like New Zealand Manuka honey. There are different varieties of lemon. This experiment compares the effect of different types of honey on bacteria growing on agar plates. According to the results of Estevinho et al., dark honey has a high level of phenolic compounds and this has been shown to have a good correlation with its higher antibacterial activity [24]. This low pH can be an effective antibacterial factor in undiluted honey, but the pH will not be enough in itself to inhibit the growth of many bacterial species when diluted in a food or by body fluids [10]. Jeddar et al.’s study has been followed up by a number of other studies seeking to measure and justify the antibacterial action of honey. Honey and Diabetes. coli Moreover, a 1.8% (v/v) concentration of Manuka honey has been shown to completely inhibit the growth of S. aureus during an 8 h incubation. The MIC value for multifloral honey (the lowest concentration of honey, which caused visible inhibition of growth of S. aureus strain), was 3.12% in row 4 and 1.56% in rows 5 and 6. Honey contains antioxidants and flavonoids that may function as antibacterial agents. It has been used for several centuries in many countries as a treatment of disease, even before knowledge existed on the causes of infection. Antibiotic resistance and chronic wound infections have increased the interest in antimicrobial treatments, including honey-based wound care products, and these have been registered with medical regulatory authorities as wound care agents in many countries, among others, the European Union, USA, and New Zealand. Herbs, plants extracts, essential oils, and honey are the most common sources for these new active compounds [2], and these products have been found to be effective against a range of bacterial infections and inflammatory cases [4]. This experiment compares the effect of different types of honey on bacteria growing on agar plates. In another study, thirty samples of honey from different parts of Oman were investigated for their activity against S. aureus. Explanation of the antibacterial activity of honey Osmotic effect Honey is a saturated or super-saturated solution of sugars, the water content usually being only 15-21% by weight124. Undiluted honey and its 1 : 2 to 1 : 6 aqueous dilutions showed activity of 100% and 96.4%, respectively, against P. aeruginosa and E. coli. It is evident that the antibacterial activity of honey can vary quite considerably and different microorganisms have different susceptibilities to different types and concentrations of honey. Other phenolic compounds were present in similar quantities, but these were not specifically identified due to a lack of analytical standards [24]. In other words, the process of osmosis is an important feature in the antibacterial activity of honey and the extent of inhibition will depend on the concentration of the honey as well as the species of bacteria being studied [10]. Of the solids in honey, 84% is a mixture of the monosaccharides fructose and glucose125. No inhibition was observed at 0.1% but the 1% concentration showed some inhibition with C. freundii, E. coli, M. phlei, and three species of Salmonella. Osmosis occurs because of the high sugar content. Other dark-coloured honeys have also demonstrated high antibacterial activity such as sweet chestnut honey (Castanea sativa), Manuka honey (Leptospermum scoparium), and Heather honey (Calluna vulgaris) [25]. Honey prevents microbial growth through the use of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), methylglyoxal (MGO), bee defensin-1, flavonoids, and a relatively low pH (~3.3) 13. Honey is a supersaturated sugar solution. Cells become dehydrated and unable to grow and proliferate in hypertonic sugar solution. A progressive increase in the inhibition was reported for most honey samples at the highest concentration in this study (at 20% at least 75% inhibition) except for K. pneumoniae which interestingly showed no inhibition at all. P. aeruginosa and E.coli. The pH of the honey was considered to be the most important and effective factor in inhibiting microorganism growth which ranged between pH 3 and 5.4. Furthermore, Weston et al., found two unidentified polar components with elution times of 44 and 47 min [58]. Indeed, H2O2 levels in honey can reach 2.5 mmol in 30-minute, and this can double on prolonged incubation. The TP contents ranged between 21.3 and 184.3 mg/kg and the main phenolic acid in all honey samples was gallic acid with 4.52, 4.11, 1.39, and 3.63 mg/100 g, respectively, for the different honey types mentioned above [57]. Curious Minds is a Government initiative jointly led by the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, the Ministry of Education and the Office of the Prime Minister’s Chief Science Advisor. Some researchers have studied the action of enzymes in the antibacterial activity of honey. As early as the 1990s, phenolic acids and flavonoids were recognised as important components of the antibacterial substances in honey [52]. Honey has been widely accepted as food and medicine by all generations, traditions, and civilizations, both ancient and modern. Castle, “Re-examining the role of hydrogen peroxide in bacteriostatic and bactericidal activities of honey,”, K. Brudzynski and R. Lannigan, “Mechanism of honey bacteriostatic action against MRSA and VRE involves hydroxyl radicals generated from honey’s hydrogen peroxide,”, N. Al-Waili, A. The antibacterial activity ranged between 2% to 58% (w/v) with a median of 13.6%. Many of these substances have been discovered to have similar inhibitory effect and mechanisms of action to antibiotics, causing damage to bacterial cell walls as well as affecting protein synthesis in bacterial cells [5]. This suggests that honey contains other important components with antibacterial properties. Honey is antibacterial and can prevent growth of most types of bacteria. A. Mahrooqi, B. Nzeako, and H. Nsanze, “Inhibition effect of honey on the adherence of Salmonella to intestinal epithelial cells in vitro,”, N. S. Al-Waili, “Investigating the antimicrobial activity of natural honey and its effects on the pathogenic bacterial infections of surgical wounds and conjunctiva,”, T. R. Shamala, Y. P. Shri Jyothi, and P. Saibaba, “Antibacterial effect of honey on the in vitro and in vivo growth of, J. M. Wilkinson and H. M. A. Cavanagh, “Antibacterial activity of 13 honeys against, C. Badet and F. Quero, “The in vitro effect of manuka honeys on growth and adherence of oral bacteria,”, T. Alandejani, J. Marsan, W. Ferris, R. Slinger, and F. Chan, “Effectiveness of honey on, O. E. Adeleke, J. O. Olaitan, and E. I. Okpekpe, “Comparative antibacterial activity of honey and gentamicin against, E. O. Agbaje, T. Ogunsanya, and O. I. Aiwerioba, “Conventional use of honey as antibacterial agent,”. In addition, the mild acidity and hydrogen peroxide content have obvious antimicrobial effects [34]. Although a high concentration of sugar and a low water activity will stop the growth of many microorganisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, studies have shown that often no effective bacterial inhibition occurs in the presence of “artificial” honey which can be prepared using a mixture of mono-and disaccharides at the same concentrations as those present in honey. The antibacterial properties of honey should be examined on non-pathogenic bacteria, such as E. … To illustrate this, Lachman et al., evaluated the total polyphenol content of honey varieties harvested in the period from May to August 2006 and found the highest TP acid content occurred in the honey collected at the beginning of June (on average 170.21 mg/Kg) and July (on average 163.32 mg/Kg), whereas it was much lower in samples (83.60 mg/Kg) collected during the other months [53]. Furthermore, the study of such natural compounds may lead to the discovery of an active component that could be used to prevent some environmental hazards or perhaps have an ameliorative effect on a disease process in mammalian cells [3]. Nevertheless, some bacterial strains are more sensitive to the osmotic effects of carbohydrate monomers and dimers than others, and it has been shown that a concentration of 15% (w/v) carbohydrate (fructose, glucose, and glucose and fructose combinations) was sufficient to have a similar inhibitory effect as honey on all 28 tested isolates of Helicobacter pylori [37]. Najla A. Albaridi, "Antibacterial Potency of Honey", International Journal of Microbiology, vol. This was supported by another study in which solutions of pasture honey 25% (w/v) showed no detectable antibacterial activity in the presence of catalase but an activity equivalent to 14.8% phenol without catalase, whereas the same solution of Manuka honey had activity equivalent to 13.2% with and without catalase [36]. MIC is used to determine the in vitro activity of an antibacterial substance and can be defined as the lowest concentration of an antibacterial agent that will inhibit the visible growth of microorganisms after an overnight incubation [31]. Not all of the factors listed are present in all types of honey, and these compounds must be tested for and considered for clinical applications 3. After all, honey has well-known antimicrobial properties, but it’s hardly recommended to use it like Bactine on a cut. A good linear correlation has been shown to exist between MGO content and the antibacterial activity of Manuka honey [61]. Generation of hydrogen peroxide, bee defensin-1, high osmolarity and low value of pH seems to be crucial for its antimicrobial potential. This highlights the role of other important factors that can contribute to the effect of hydrogen peroxide and the acidity in the antibacterial activity of honey [12]. The result showed that the South African honey varieties did not have strong bactericidal activity, and honey concentration above 25% was necessary for antibacterial activity, due to the osmolality and carbohydrate concentration [67]. Honey has been reported to aid in wound healing, as it has special antibacterial and antibiotic properties . Honey is an example of a naturally available product and is the only concentrated sweetener that can be found in nature. Copyright © 2019 Najla A. Albaridi. Activity: Antibacterial effects of honey Honey is antibacterial and can prevent growth of most types of bacteria. As shown in Figure 1, the different active components in honey have been isolated by neutralizing each one individually and observing the effect on its antimicrobial activity. The flavonoids were naringenin, kaempferol, apigenin, pinocembrin, and chrysin. However, according to the International Honey Commission, the acceptable range of moisture content is 16.4–20.0% and reducing sugar content is 31.2–42.4% for fructose and 23–32% for glucose. The samples included Kanuka, Manuka, Heather, and Kamah honey. studied the antibacterial activity of 24 samples of honey (16 from Oman and eight from Africa) against three bacteria, namely, S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa. The most commonly used bacterial susceptibility assay is a broth micro- or macrodilution assay. E. coli: Escherichia coli; EPHI: Ethiopian Public Health Institute; EHNRI: Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute; Lab: Laboratory; MRSA: Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus; MSA: Mannitol Salt Agar; Staph: Staphylococcus. A linear correlation between the honey content of hydrogen peroxide and the antibacterial activity of honeys has also been reported [49]. Also, honey was active against biofilms formed by methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with bactericidal rates ranging from 63–82%, 73–63%, and 91–91%, respectively, that was higher than the effect of commonly used single antibiotics commonly used [78]. The healing properties of honey can be attributed directly to honey bees and the enzymes the bees use to ‘process’ the honey. Honey has been shown to have a strong activity against many bacteria in both media and in culture. These terms were coined by Dold and Witzenhausen in 1955 and involve the formation of a scale of 1 to 5 equal to honey dilutions in 5% steps, from 25% to 5% (w/v) (Table 1). These phenolic acids included protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid, and benzoic acid. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) statistics, up to 80% of the population in some developed countries have used natural products in their primary health care [1]. A study by Alnaqdy et al. These enzymes have been studied and have been shown to contain similar properties of antibiotics. Yaoa et al., meanwhile, found gallic acid and coumaric acid to be the main phenolic acids in Australian tea tree, crow ash, brush box, and heath honey. An equivalent activity could be made by using a 15–30% honey dilution which contains similar amounts of MGO. 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